Chemistry

Solids, liquids and gases

Particle arrangement, motion and separation in each state, and the changes between them.

Diffusion

The movement of particles from high to low concentration, and the effect of relative molecular mass.

Elements, compounds and mixtures

The difference between an element, a compound and a mixture.

Atomic structure and the Periodic Table

Protons, neutrons and electrons, proton and nucleon number, electronic configuration, and its link to group and period.

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons, and relative atomic mass.

Ions and ionic bonds

Formation of ions by electron transfer, ionic bonding, and the properties of ionic compounds.

Simple molecules and covalent bonds

Sharing electron pairs, dot-and-cross diagrams, and the properties of simple molecular substances.

Giant covalent structures

Diamond, graphite and silicon(IV) oxide — structure, bonding and properties.

Metallic bonding

A lattice of positive ions in a sea of delocalised electrons, and why metals conduct and are malleable.

Formulae

Writing formulae of ionic and covalent compounds and balancing chemical equations.

Relative masses of atoms and molecules

Relative atomic mass and relative formula mass, and percentage composition.

The mole and the Avogadro constant

Moles from mass and from concentration, gas volumes, reacting-mass calculations, empirical formulae and yield.

Electrolysis

Electrolytes, electrodes, products at the anode and cathode, and half equations.

Hydrogen–oxygen fuel cells

How a fuel cell produces electricity from hydrogen and oxygen, and its advantages and disadvantages.

Exothermic and endothermic reactions

Energy transfer to and from the surroundings, energy level diagrams, activation energy and bond breaking/making.

Physical and chemical changes

How to tell a chemical change from a physical one.

Rate of reaction

Collision theory and the effects of concentration, temperature, surface area, pressure and catalysts.

Reversible reactions and equilibrium

The ⇌ symbol, dynamic equilibrium, and the effect of changing conditions.

Redox

Oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen and electrons, oxidising and reducing agents, and oxidation numbers.

The characteristic properties of acids and bases

Reactions of acids, indicators and the pH scale, and the H⁺/OH⁻ definition.

Oxides

Acidic, basic, amphoteric and neutral oxides.

Preparation of salts

Preparing soluble salts by titration or excess solid, and insoluble salts by precipitation.

Arrangement of elements

Periods, groups, and the link between position and electronic configuration.

Group I properties

The alkali metals: physical properties, reactions with water, and the trend in reactivity.

Group VII properties

The halogens: colours and states, the trend in reactivity, and displacement reactions.

Transition elements

Characteristic properties: variable oxidation states, coloured compounds and catalytic activity.

Noble gases

Group VIII: full outer shells, lack of reactivity, and uses.

Properties of metals

General physical properties of metals compared with non-metals.

Uses of metals

Uses of aluminium and copper linked to their properties.

Alloys and their properties

Why alloys are harder than pure metals, and examples including brass and steel.

The reactivity series

Order of reactivity, reactions with water and acid, and displacement reactions.

Corrosion of metals

Rusting of iron, the conditions required, and methods of prevention.

Extraction of metals

Extraction methods linked to reactivity, including the blast furnace and electrolysis of aluminium oxide.

Water

Testing for water, water treatment, and the uses of water in industry and the home.

Fertilisers

NPK fertilisers and the elements plants need.

Air quality and climate

Composition of clean air, sources and effects of pollutants, catalytic converters and climate change.

Formulae, functional groups and terminology

Homologous series, functional groups, general formulae and isomerism.

Naming organic compounds

Prefixes for chain length and suffixes for functional groups.

Fuels

Petroleum, fractional distillation and the uses of the fractions.

Alkanes

Saturated hydrocarbons, general formula CnH2n+2, and substitution reactions.

Alkenes

Unsaturated hydrocarbons, cracking, the bromine water test, and addition reactions.

Alcohols

The −OH group, manufacture of ethanol by fermentation and hydration, and combustion.

Carboxylic acids

The −COOH group, reactions of ethanoic acid, and ester formation.

Polymers

Addition polymerisation, condensation polymers, and the environmental impact of plastics.

Experimental design

Choosing apparatus, measuring accurately, and assessing purity.

Acid–base titrations

Titration procedure, indicators, and concordant results.

Chromatography

Paper chromatography, locating agents, and Rf values.

Separation and purification

Filtration, crystallisation, simple and fractional distillation.

Identification of ions and gases

Flame tests, tests for cations, anions and gases.